Compare and Contrast Melody and Structure in the Brahms, Debussy and Poulenc Essay Example for Free

Comp be and Contrast Melody and Structure in the Brahms, Debussy and Poulenc EssayBrahms is a composer in which short letter is not the key focus, but still does in fact use it to his advantage. As a romantic composer Brahms definitely uses the propertys of the romantic era in his music, for example, the augmentation of motifs. This happens regularly throughout the piece but specifically he does an augmentation of the x motif in bar 105-108. Another singing get that is present in this Piano Quintet is the use of ornamentation. This helps to create decoration to the melody line and is seen in the y motif at bar 109. The last melodic feature that Brahms predominantly uses is rests and staccatos. This creates a jerky melody throughout for the strings and piano to play. Debussy in contrast, uses smooth melodies, by using slurs, which is sh profess from the first bar to create his commentary of the poem. Another contrast to Brahms, is that Debussy uses solos and unaccompanied mel odies in his composition and Brahms never lets a part play on its own. Debussys main and famous solo that he uses for the melody is in the flute at bar 1.Furthermore, he also uses whole tone scales to be able to create a different melody that has not been used before, and this is shown at bar 31 and 32 in the clarinet. Similarly to Brahms, Debussy decorates his melody, however not with ornamentation but with different rhythms so that he mickle add in special(a) note flurrys. For example, the rhythm in bar 3 in the flute, at bar 21-22 has been decorated with demi-semi triplets. Poulenc similarily uses ornamentation in the way that Brahms does in his piece, for example in bar 10 he has used a type of higher mordent.In addition, a melodic feature which is unique to this composition is the arpeggio figures, which is shown in the trumpet in the first three notes. This appergio figures helps us to establish what key we are in. Furthermore, just like the Brahms Poulenc makes use of our aptitude to make extreme dynamics for the melody,without having to add instruments. It starts off quietly until the fourth bar where it jumps to forte for three homorhythm notes. Lastly, Poulenc uses some chromaticism, just like Debussy. The chromatic melodic figure that appears in this piece is in the trombone in the Coda.Brahms is very particular about the organise of his composition also. The overall structure of the piece is trey Form, which is A-B-A or this case Scherzo-Trio-Scherzo. The Scherzo is a movement which is mean to be like a joke. This structure and Scherzo was influecend by the Classical period as we were still growing the romantic era at this time. Brahms, decides to experiment with the Ternary structure though, so in spite of appearance the Scherzo there are three themes called A,B and C, and these are formed together witha fugato office to form ABCAB Fugato BCAB.Furthermore, the Trio also uses its own Ternary form within itself with different themes. Lastly, the structure of the Fugato section is also experimented with to make it complicated and decorative to the listener, so Brahms uses a fugal subject and countersbujects at the same time and changes the points and instruments in which the different countersubjects come in. He ends the Fugal section with a Stretto, creating a extra part of structure, which uses fragmented ideas from previous melodies. Similarly to Brahms, Debussy uses a Ternary Form structure of ABA.Furthermore, within the A section there is cardinal subsections and a renewals. You can tell each different subsection because there is something new going on in each section. For example, in A1 the main theme of the flute is present, to the transition where the instrumentation changes and the melody starts to get scalic, and then for the final subsection it has a significant difference of a new tempo. This is a comparison with Brahms because Debussy has also experimented within the structure but has not gone to the exte nt that Brahms has.Lastly, the whole structure is based on description. Debussy is trying to give a musical/visual flick to a tone poem, and this helps him to create his structure throughout, because it needed to adapt to what was going on. The Sonata structure is not in fact in Sonata form, it uses a variation of Ternary form. Again like Brahms and Debussy, he does not just use ABA, but create a transition and a coda to go with this to create the structure of his whole piece. This is less ambigious than the other two composers but this is because Poulenc was heavily influenced by the neo-classical style.Moreover, to create a contrast within the piece Poulenc used extended vocalise structures and distinct classical style phrasing to help him clarify his structure e. g. bars 1-4. In comparision to Brahms, Poulenc uses themes within his structure to give each section its own miniature structure, for example, in Section A, bars 1-21, there are three themes A (b1-8) ,B (9-17) and C (1 8-21). In conclusion, there reasons there are similarities surrounded by the pieces are because they are all in similar music periods.All it ranges from is the romantic period, where experimentation started to occur, to the 20th Century when experimentation was at its peak. Also, the reasons there are differences between the pieces is because of their own individuals styles and influences. Brahms is still influenced by the Classical period in some aspects due to being so close to the Classical Period, Debussy is in the middle of two periods so is influenced and his piece pushed the periods forward, and lastly, Poulenc was influenced by Neo classicism, and this shows all the composers influences are contrasting.

Culture Essay Example for Free

Culture EssayFirst it would be profitable to analyze to settle last for a cultural studies researcher not only it includes traditional high culture (the culture of ruling social groups) and popular culture but according to Raymond Williams also everyday meanings and practices. As stated in Matthew Arnold? s Culture and Anarchy culture is the disinterested endeavor after mans ne plus ultra. It was James Clifford in Collecting finesse and culture that defended that what we gather for culture is not always the same because objects of study vary according to power discourses which define the value of the studied object. This being said, it is commonly known that we live in a time of consumption, so naturally guile is seen from that perspective. Theodor Adorno defends culture is being interchange as you would with commodities. The autonomy of works of imposture is eliminated by the culture industry they become bound to be trade as commodities. In a red view, he defends that those who control the means of production, essentially control the culture. Adorno approaches the spheres of mess hall culture in a simplistic way, production (industry) and reception (consumption) strip away individuality. Adorno also distinguishes high / low art.He says that high art has been diminished by speculation about its efficacy.. In this sense, high culture would be the art worth of serious academic study while low culture would be the culture of the masses. Walter Benjamin speaks about the way we define art is ascertain not by ideas but by theories. He reflects on what art is and the way it is being altered by technical means. W. Benjamin starts his essay by quoting Paul Valery our fine arts were developed by men whose power of action upon lightlygs was insignificant in comparison with ours so it is something questionable.In addition, Valery states that the idea of pretty is constantly changing due to the growth in techniques and their precision. Benjamin corrobora tes this view by pointing out that techniques of representation detach the reproduced object from the domain of tradition and mass movements are responsible for this, especially the film. Although in his essay he states that the film operator captures the image at the speed of an actor? s speech, thus video display us things we have never been able to notice before, like a gesture decomposed in several fractions of a second, it also manipulates masses its ultimate habit is profit.The reproduction of works of art and the art of the film have had a huge impact on in its traditional form, as Benjamin puts it. Who hasn? t experienced this number one-hand? Calling forward the example of painting, Benjamin points out that without its reproduction it would not be accessible to so many, we will have to dislocate in order to be able to contemplate the original work . But copies diminish the importance of the work of art. For example a symphony was trivialized from an auditory to the dra fting room. This calls to question the authority of the object. Copies of a work of art made it commodity.Without realizing the painter was selling them to earn a living, although his ulterior motive was the artistic office of it. But it became a commodity nonetheless. According to both texts there is no high culture today and little remains in the sense it was first created. W. Benjamin states that high culture always had a cult component and it was bound by it. Statues were made to be contemplated in temples, mosaics in churches. Works of art like statues and mosaics that cannot be mechanical reproduced thus maintained their authenticity they are first and foremost tie in to cult value.When a work of art is related to exhibition value it loses its aura because by reproducing the uniqueness of every reality we destroy the aura. According to Benjamin high art would be the works of art that have an aura and can maintain their distance. If such a distance is not kept then true auth enticity is questioned. An analysis of contemporary biography sheds some light in this question. It brings us closer to every manifestation of art. He also states that contemporary literature is being undervalued. There is a thin dividing line between reader and writer. Virtually any reader can become a writer, once again closeness is implied.

Role Of Quantity Surveying Profession Construction Essay

Role Of measurement Surveying Profession Construction EssayAccording to Williss Practice and Procedure for the Quantity Surveyor (Ashworth pig, 2007, p.1), the role of the quantity analyze has been defined by Royal Institution of Chartered Surveyors (RICS, 1971) as ensuring that the resources of the wrench industry atomic number 18 utilised to the best advantage of society by providing, inhume alia, the financial solicitude for toils and a personify consultancy service to the client and designer during the whole verbal expression process.However, the roles of the quantity canvas duty within the contemporary strengthened environment get out be discussed as followsPreliminary price adviceOne of the quantity surveyor roles is to ensure that the proposed encounter is carefully constructed, in terms of be arising end-to-end entire design and construction process (Ashworth squealer, 2007, p.121). Quantity surveyor also acts to suggest his professional and reliable advi ces to his client on matter of cost at different stages during the design and construction process. The advices given during inception stage are vital important as the decisions taken in this stage result seriously extend to the quality of works to be carried out(a) (Ashworth Hogg, 2007, p.122). Ashworth and Hogg (2007, p.121) utter that the quantity surveyor will offer cost advice for the comparative design solutions of the alternatives materials to be used or the form of construction to be adopted. Quantity surveyor is the recognized professional cost and value consultant, their measurement and valuation knowledge are without equal (Ashworth Hogg, 2007, p.123).Cost supplyingAccording to Williss Practice and Procedure for the Quantity Surveyor, Ashworth Hogg (2007, p.126) stated that the cost planning process commences with the preparation of an approximate estimate and then the setting of cost targets for each element. As the design evolves, these cost targets are checked against the developing design and details for any changes in their financial allocations. Quantity survey profession below this aspect will require the quantity surveyor to allocate the approximate estimated costs into subdivisions, known as elements within a building. Ashworth and Hogg (2007, p.122) stated that These elements costs can be compared against the element costs of other similar projects from the quantity surveyors cost library records. The purpose is to provide a offend value of bills for client. It also keeps the designer fully informed of all the cost implications of the design. Quantity surveyor readiness also try to reduce the estimated costs by simplifying the details without modifying the design. Besides, resolution document will also be prompt on this basic to make the preparation of cost analysis easier. Cost planning will be developed and while taking account of appearance, quality and utility, the cost is planned to be within the economic boundary (Will is, Ashworth Willis, 1994, p.95)Procurement and tendering proceduresIt is important that quantity surveying profession to be applied during this stage. As stated by Ashworth and Hogg (2007, pp.237-238), role of quantity surveying profession in this aspect will entangle as followsRecommending an organizational structure for the proposed training of a project (Ashworth Hogg, 2007)Advising on the appointment of the various consultants and withdrawors in the knowledge of the information provided by the employer (Ashworth Hogg, 2007)Managing the information and organise the work of the different take offies (Ashworth Hogg, 2007)Selecting the methods for the appointment of consultants and asserters (Ashworth Hogg, 2007)Determining the employers requirement in terms of time, cost and quality (Ashworth Hogg, 2007)Assessing the viability of the project and providing advice in respect of funding and taxation advantages (Ashworth Hogg, 2007)Quantity surveyor plays a crucial role t o provide appropriate advices on the method of procurement to be used for clients who wish to undertake construction work (Ashworth Hogg, 2007, p.237). in that location are various procurement methods to deal with the different demand and various situation, client should not select an inappropriate form of procurement unwittingly (Ashworth Hogg, 2007). Ashworth and Hogg (2007, p.237) stated that Quantity surveyors are in an excellent position as procurement managers with their specialist knowledge of constructions and contractual procedures. They are able to appraise the character of the competing methods that might be appropriate and to match these with the particular needs and aspirations of the employer. Hence, clients are advised to seek for quantity surveyor for relevant and reliable advices or recommendation beforehand making their final decisions. Due to this, advices and recommendation provided by quantity surveyor must be independently without the intrusion of individu al bias and self-interest (Ashworth Hogg, 2007, p.237).Contract livingAshworth and Hogg (2007, p.243) stated that When the choice of form of contract has been decided, the next step is the preparation of the documents that will accompany the signed form of contract. The contract documents for any construction will normally include the following informationContract drawingsIt includes plans, elevations and cross section. Some other additional details will also be prepared based on the complexity of the project. This will provide information for the client to get the idea of architects or engineers design intentions. The contract drawings are normally provided by architect and engineer (Ashworth Hogg, 2007, pp.243-244). However, the role of quantity surveyor is to collect the drawings and any specifications from the architect and at the same time discuss the job. There is however some more detailed questions will arise, at that placefore a timetable for the completion of the cont ract bills will be agreed, along with dates when additional detailed information and drawings can be pass judgment (Ashworth Hogg, 2007, p.259)Contract billsQuantity surveyor will involve in preparation of contract bills. Ashworth and Hogg (2007, p.258) stated that The appointment of the quantity surveyor is likely to have been do at early stage when early price estimates were under consideration. This may be before any drawings are available, in order to provide some cost advice to the client. Due to this, quantity surveyor will normally be needed except for on a very small project, the demand for the profession of quantity surveyor might only to be eliminated (Ashworth and Hogg, 2007, p.258). Besides, there is a condition for contractor who wishes to submit tenders in competition to provide approximate quantities required for particular works. Therefore, quantity surveying firms are then sometimes involved in preparing approximate quantities depending upon the completeness of t he drawings and other information from which it was prepared contractors (Ashworth Hogg, 2007, p.258).Articles of agreementAshworth and Hogg (2007, p.246) stated that This is the part of the contract which the parties sign. The contract is between the employer (building owner) and the contractor (building contractor). The blank spaces in the articles are filled in with the (i) names of employer, contractor, architect and quantity surveyor (ii) date of the signing of the contract (iii) location and personality of the work (iv) list of the contract drawings (v) amount of the contract sum.Condition of contractThe condition of contract includes the contractors obligation to carry out the work shown on the drawings and draw in the bills to the satisfaction of the architect. They cover the matter of quality of work, cost time, nominated supplies and subcontractors insurances, fluctuation and VAT. (Ashworth Hogg, 2007, p.246)AppendixAshworth and Hogg (2007, p.246) stated that The Contr act Particulars for the Conditions of Contract include that part of the contract which is peculiar to the particular project in question. It includes key information, for example, on the start and completion dates, the periods of interim payment and the length of the rectification period for which the contractor is responsible.Evaluation of tendersAshworth and Hogg (2007, p.274) stated that In public authorities, tenders will probably be addressed to the secretary or principal chief officer. With private clients they are usually forwarded to the architect or the quantity surveyor. On the due date for receipt of tenders, the envelopes received will be counted to check that they have all been received, former to being openend. Quantity surveyor will then prepare a list of the tendered amounts afterward the envelopes are opened. Preliminary examination will be made after that to ascertain which tenders will be taken into consideration for acceptance. A fuller report will be made late r by the quantity surveyor (Ashworth Hogg, 2007, p.274). Besides, accord to Ashworth and Hogg (2007, p.274), the architect will rely extensively on quantity surveyor for advice on these matters. A report will be made for the client, setting out clearly the arguments in favour of acceptance of one tender or another. Quantity surveyor will have to check and examine for the copy of the priced bills submitted by those tenderer who is under consideration (Ashworth Hogg, 2007, p.275).Financial reporting and interim payments, cash-flow forecastingAccording to Ashworth and Hogg (2007, p.286) JCT 2005 makes clear duty of the clients quantity surveyor in this respect (clause 4.11) Interim valuations shall be made by the quantity surveyor whenever the architect or contract administrator considers them necessary for the purpose of ascertaining the amount to be started as due in Interim Certificate. Ashworth and Hogg (2007) stated that Most construction projects encountered by the surveyor wi ll have contractual provision for the payment of the contractor for work done, at regular intervals during the contract period. betwixt the date of the first interim certificate and the practical completion certificate, interim certificates have to be issued by quantity surveyor at a certain intervals stated in the contract particulars. It is the responsibility of quantity surveyor to calculate the amount for the interim payments during each interval (Ashworth Hogg, 2007, pp.286-287). A professional quantity surveyor should always aware that there are conditions for employer to prevent the employer getting penalties and punishments and quantity surveyor should always provide his or her appropriate advices where necessary (Ashworth Hogg, 2007, p.288). Besides, clients generally desire the final cost of a project to be no more than contract sum. Due to this, it is the role of clients quantity surveyor to try to manage the costs by monitoring the design and site development and prov ide his professional advices of the likely impacts and remedies (Ashworth Hogg, 2007, p.302). It is also necessary for quantity surveyor to review all the correspondence and meeting issued on the project in order to find out the potential cost implications. Monthly financial reports will normally be required to advise the client of the anticipated outturn costs (Ashworth Hogg, 2007). Cash-flow forecasts report will be prepared in association with the contractor since it will be greatly influenced by the intended programme of works. Cash-flow forecasts are used as a basis upon which to arrange project finance and monitoring the progress of works (Ashworth Hogg, 2007, p.305).Final account statementAshworth and Hogg (2007, p.310) stated that The majority of construction projects result in a final cost that is different to that agreed by the client and contractor at commencement of the construction works. The calculation and agreement of this final construction cost, the final acco unt, is usually of the utmost important to both the employer and contractor. Therefore, parties to the contract need to ensure that the final account incorporates a fair valuation of the works carried out. In this aspect, the quantity surveyor will decide on the suitable subdivisions into terms that will be adopted into the account prior to any abstracting or bill remeasurements. As the list of variations develops, quantity surveyor will be able to decide on how to group them. For example, there may be one instruction from the architect for increase the size of storage tanks, another for the omission of a drinking water point and a third for the addition of three lavatory basins. Each of these will be measured as a separate item, but the quantity surveyor might decide to group these together as variations on plumbing. It is preferably to spotlight the reason for variation in cost report to acknowledge the client on reasons of the costs changed. (Ashworth Hogg, 2007, pp.315-316)Set tlement of contractual disputesQuantity surveyors involved themselves in contractual disputes either in litigation in the courts, in arbitration or in alternative dispute resolution cases (ADR) cases. They sometimes involve themselves as lulu of fact or expert witness, adjudicators, arbitrators or mediators in ADR cases (Ashworth Hogg, 2007, p.353)Project managementFinancial expertise of quantity surveyors make them ideally suited to project management services. According to Ashworth and Hogg (2007, p.376), project management provides the important management function of bringing the project team together and may be defined as The overall planning, coordination and run across of a project from inception to completion, aimed at meeting a clients requirements in order to produce a functionally viable project that will be completed on time within authorized cost and to the required quality standards. (CIOB 2002) Quantity surveyor sometimes take overall control and responsibility of for coordinating the activities of the various contractors, subcontractors, processes and procedures for the full duration of the project (Ashworth Hogg, 2007)Ashworth and Hogg (2007) stated that The skills of the quantity surveyor traditionally included measurement and valuation and to these were later added accounting and negotiation. As the profession evolved, quantity surveying profession were extended to forecasting, analyzing, planning, controlling, evaluating, budgeting, problem solving and modeling. The quantity surveyor knowledge has also been developed by a better understanding of the design and construction process (Ashworth Hogg, 2007).

Materialist View of the Mind-body Problem Analysis

Materialist View of the Mind-body Problem AnalysisDiscuss the strengths and weaknesses of the materialist view of the genius-body problem.The mind-body problem within the study of intendedness is exactly as it sounds the difficulty with connecting the mind with the body. The mind is approximately mental processes, consciousness and thoughts, and the body is about the physical aspect of the fountainhead (McLeod, 2007). This problem is known as the explanatory gap and there are many theories which attempt to meet the extent of this gap. oneness theory which is very popular amongst current researchers is materialism. This approach is the idea that consciousness can be completely explained by physical issuing and leaves no room for the non-physical mind (Blackmore, 2010). Materialists believe that it is only our oral sex functions that are important and not our indwelling have intercourses, other(a)wise described as matter over mind. The opposing approach to materialism is dualism, which is the idea that our mind is more than just our brain, a.k.a. mind over matter (Dualism, 2014). However, there are very few dualists today. Most philosophers nowadays are materialists, although it cannot be denied that materialism is also not without its flaws (Blackmore, 2010).There are two of import versions of materialism. One is eliminative materialism which proposes that inborn experiences do not be and that by knowing enough about biology and the nervous system, we can also understand consciousness and therefore, it can be completely explained by neuroscience (Blackmore, 2010). The other version is reductive materialism which suggests that our mental states are identical to our physical states of the brain, beggarlying that subjective experiences do exist but they are not distinguishable from physical processes in the brain (Churchland, 1988). Materialism denies that it is our conscious decisions that cause us to act the personal manner we do and instead be lieves that it is physical causes (Blackmore, 2010).There are strengths and weaknesses of materialism. Searle (2000) believes it is very outdated and does not explain what consciousness is, but n each does dualism and by rejecting one, it does not mean adopting the other. One strength of materialism is that it avoids the problem of dualism which is that consciousness and physical matter are thought of as two separate substances, meaning that the interaction among them cannot be explained. Materialists argue that if our minds are the aforesaid(prenominal) as our brains and not two separate substances, then there is no need to explain how one causes the other. For dualism to be correct, the interaction between the two substances would have to work both ways, meaning that any change in consciousness moldiness be accompanied by a change in the brain, and any change in the brain must also be accompanied by a change in consciousness. However, the latter is not true which suggests that d ualism does not work (Blackmore, 2010).Materialists believe that consciousness is identical to brain states. However, according to Leibnizs law, if two entities are to be identical, they must have the same properties (Blackman, 2008). For materialism to be correct, every properties of the brain would also have to be properties of consciousness, which is not true as mental states have properties that brain states do not, such as subjective experiences.Materialism believes that our subjective experiences cannot be studied in an objective way as they are not a physical entity and non-entities cannot be studied by science (Blackman, 2008). However, Searle (2000) argues that they can. He believes that by asking people about their subjective experiences, for example, how it feels to experience pain, that we can study this objectively. One weakness of materialism is that it ignores the aspect of how it feels to be conscious by denying that subjective experiences exist or that they are not distinctive from functions in the brain (Blackmore, 2010). Patterns of brain activation cannot explain how it feels to be conscious and aware of experiences.Miller et al. (2009) demonstrated how we cannot tell what someone is experiencing by looking at images of their brain activation. This was shown by healthful individual differences in patterns of brain activation amongst participants while they were all doing the same memory task. Materialists believe that by doing the same memory task, all participants are experiencing the same thing and therefore the patterns of their brain activation should all be the same. However, as this is not the case, it provides evidence that eliminative materialism does not work and that subjective experiences do exist as participants must have had different experiences from one other even though they were doing the same task. This also suggests that reductive materialism cannot work as the variate within participants shows that our subjective exp eriences must not be identical to our brain states.Nagel (1974) explains how subjective experiences are such a crucial aspect of being conscious by comparing humans to wild. We could never know what it would really be like to be a bat because we could never share the same subjective experiences as them. Even if we were magically transformed into a bat, we would still have our own memories and intelligence, meaning we would not have the same experience that normal bats do (Blackmore, 2010). He makes the point that in order to even begin to form an idea of what it is like to be a bat (or even another person) we must adopt their point of view. The same applies to Searles argument about pain it seems impossible that anyone would ever be able to have the same experience of someone elses mental state as their perceptions of the same experience could be entirely different (Churchland, 1988). This stresses how important subjective experiences are as we all have our own different viewpoint s meaning that we experience things differently and therefore these experiences cannot be understood from looking at a brain scan. This also suggests wherefore materialism is not the answer to the mind-body problem. However, it also argues against Searles theory that subjective experiences can be studied objectively as, even after asking about them, we still do not know exactly what it is like to experience it ourselves.Materialisms main strength is that it proposes that consciousness is not different from the brain, meaning that how one causes the other does not have to be explained and therefore, eliminates the problem of the explanatory gap. However, this can also be viewed as a major weakness of the theory the two cannot be identical as our mental states have properties that our brain states do not share. Materialism does not sufficiently account for the role of our subjective experiences in consciousness. It either completely eliminates their role or it claims that they are s imply the same as our physical brain states.ReferencesAll About Philosophy. (2014). Dualism. Retrieved from http//www.allaboutphilosophy.org/dualism.htmBlackman, R. (2008). Churchland, calculate and Consciousness. Retrieved from http//reidblackman.com/pdf/reidBlackman.churchland.pdfBlackmore, S. (2010). Consciousness An introduction. 2nd edition. Routledge.Churchland, P, M. (1988). Matter and Consciousness. Revised edition. Massachusetts Institute of Technology.McLeod, S. A. (2007). Mind Body Debate. Retrieved from http//www.simplypsychology.org/mindbodydebate.htmlMiller, M.B., Donovan, C. L., Sokol-Hessner, P., German, E., Van Horn, J.D., Wolford, G.L. (2009). Unique and persistent individual patterns of brain activity across different memory retrieval tasks. NeuroImage, 48, 625-635.Nagel, T. (1974). What is it like to be a bat? The Philosophical Review, 83(4), 435-450.Searle, J. (2000). Consciousness. Annual Reviews of Neuroscience, 23, 557 578.

Features of Karakoram Glacier Surges

Features of Karakoram Glacier SurgesWhat are the typical features of Karakoram glacier heave ups?The Karakoram is part of a complex of mountain ranges at the center on of Asia, where the borders of five countries all converge (Editors of Encyclopdia Britannica, 2016). Glacial tidy sums are glacial advances at velocities up to one hundred times faster than usual (Sinha and Ravindra, 2012, p. 38). When examining Karakoram glacier flocks it appears they are variant to other sailplane clusters in the world. The surges tend to be brief events, with exceptionally high velocities, initiation and breathing out phases are rapid and the surges do not have the appearance _or_ semblance to be seasonally controlled (Quincey et al., 2015, p. 1299).One typical feature of Karakoram glacier surges is that they are short-lived events, usually lasting 3-5 years. When Drenmang Glacier surged in 1930 and 1977 both events only lasted a year (Hewitt, 2007, p. 185) and a Shakesiga Glacier surge in t he 2000s only lasted 1-2 years (Quincey et al., 2015, p. 1298). Their brief nature means there have been a huge number of surges over the last cl years. There have been 34 surges since the 1860s involving 23 glaciers. Four tributaries of Panmah Glacier have surged in less than a decade, three in quick succession between 2001 and 2005. Since 1985, 13 surges have occurred in Karakoram, more than in any comparable period since the 1850s. (Hewitt, 2007, p. 181). Although Karakoram glacier surges are generally short-lived, they are actually longer surge events when compared to surges in Alaska.another(prenominal) typical feature of Karakoram glacier surges is their extremely high velocities, usually reaching 2km a-1. The Bualtar glacier experienced a mean surface velocity of 2.77 km a-1 during a 1986 surge, compared with a 146m a-1 surge during the previous summer (Copland et al., 2009, pp. 1-2). Between 2006 and 2007, the North Gasherbrum glacier surge had a velocity wave of 3km a-1 and , the peak velocity advanced from 15.5 to 18.5 km (Mayer et al., 2011, p. 908). In the campaign of the Braldu surge between 2013 and 2014, there was a clear velocity wave of approximately 2 km a-1 (Quincey et al., 2015, p. 1293). These velocities are the most likely cause of what makes the surge much(prenominal) a quick event. The Karakoram surge velocities are faster than other surge velocities across the world, where the velocities tend to reach only a few thousand m a-1.A third feature of Karakoram glacier surges is their rapid initiation and termination phases, lasting months to years. Surge initiation and termination phases refer to the start and end of the surge. Termination occurs aft(prenominal) the surge, when the glacier has become virtually stagnant (Singh, Singh, and Haritashya, 2011, pp. 416-417). During the late summer of 2009 the Shakesiga Glacier flowed at 400 m a-1, but reached its maximum velocity of 2000 m a-1 by midsummer of 2010, indicating the initiation pha se took place during winter. Shakesiga surge decelerated to 1100 m a-1 and terminated during the early winter of 2010 (Quincey et al., 2015, pp. 1292-1293). However, Alaskan glacial surges have a much more abrupt termination phase than initiation phase, tending to last several days as opposed to months (Quincey et al., 2015, p. 1297).A final typical feature of Karakoram glacier surges is that they do not expect to be seasonally controlled. Surges usually initiate during winter months when drainage efficiency is low and terminate during summer months, when drainage efficiency is high (Quincey et al., 2015, p. 1288). However, this is not the case in the Karakoram region as surges have initiated and terminated in irregular months. The Skamri Glacier initiation phase took place more toward the summer season than the winter and the Shakesiga surge initiated and terminated during winter months (Quincey et al., 2015, pp. 1292-1293). This suggest that Karakoram surges are thermally rather than hydrologically controlled, coinciding with high-altitude warming from long-term precipitation and accumulation patterns (Quincey et al., 2015, p. 1290). If Karakoram glacier surges are thermally controlled it may apologize why their features are different to other surge areas in the world.The features of Karakoram glacier surges are an anomaly when compared to other surge areas in the world, such as Alaska, although they do region many similarities with Svalbard glacier surges. Their characteristics have led many geographers to the conclusion that they are thermally controlled and this could be a possible cause of their differences compared with other glacier surges. Yet the dominant surge mechanism still remains unclear.Reference ListCopland, L., Pope, S., Bishop, M.P., Shroder, J.F., Clendon, P., Bush, A., Kamp, U., Seong, Y.B. and Owen, L.A. (2009) Glacier velocities across the central Karakoram, Annals of Glaciology, 50(52), pp. 41-49. doi 10.3189/172756409789624229.Edito rs of Encyclopdia Britannica (2016) Karakoram range mountains, Asia, in Encyclopdia Britannica. Available at https//www.britannica.com/place/Karakoram-Range (Accessed 10 October 2016).Hewitt, K. (2007) Tributary glacier surges An exceptional concentration at Panmah glacier, Karakoram Himalaya, Journal of Glaciology, 53(181), pp. 181-188. doi 10.3189/172756507782202829.Mayer, C., Fowler, A.C., Lambrecht, A. and Scharrer, K. (2011) A surge of north Gasherbrum glacier, Karakoram, china, Journal of Glaciology, 57(205), pp. 904-916. doi 10.3189/002214311798043834.Quincey, D.J., Glasser, N.F., Cook, S.J. and Luckman, A. (2015) Heterogeneity in Karakoram glacier surges, Journal of geophysical Research Earth Surface, 120(7), pp. 1288-1300. doi 10.1002/2015jf003515.Singh, V.P., Singh, P. and Haritashya, U.K. (eds.) (2011) Encyclopedia of snow, ice and glaciers. Dordrecht Springer Verlag.Sinha, R. and Ravindra, R. (eds.) (2012) Earth system processes and disaster management. Germany Springer -Verlag Berlin and Heidelberg GmbH Co. K.

Salmon Essay -- essays research papers

The upriver salmon migration is one of natures most exciting dramas. But to the five species of peace-loving salmon (Chinook , chum, coho, pink, and sockeye), it is a long, strenuous, desperate race against time, with both obstacle taking its toll. Pacific salmon belong to a group called anadromous fish that includes Atlantic salmon, sturgeon, lampreys, shad, herring, sea- run cutthroat trout, and steelhead trout. These species hatch and live the showtime part of their lives in fresh water, then migrate to the ocean to spend their adult lives, which may be as short as 6 months or as long as 7 years. When they reach sexual maturity, they return to the freshwater stream of their origin to lay their eggs. Pacific salmon make the round of drinks trip only formerly, but some Atlantic salmon may repeat the cycle several times. Migration between fresh and salt water occurs during each season of the year, depending on latitude and genetic characteristics of the fish. Groups of fish t hat migrate together are called runs or stocks. Salmon spawn in virtually all types of freshwater habitat, from intertidal areas to high mountain streams. Pacific salmon may swim hundreds, even thousands, of miles to get back to the stream where they hatched. However, only a small percent of salmon live to reach their natal stream or spawning grounds. Those males that survive the trip are often gaunt, with grotesquely humped backs, hooked jaws, and battle-torn fins. The effeminates are fruitless with a pound or to a greater extent of eggs. Both have large white patches of bruised skin on their backs and sides. Since salmon do not feed once they leave the ocean, some will die on the way because they lack comely stored body fat to make the trip. Many will be caught in fishermens nets. Those that evade the nets may have to swim through polluted waters near cities. Many must make their way over power dams, terpsichore up from one tiny pool to the next along cement stairstep cascade s called fish ladders. In the tributary streams, waterfalls and rapids are steep and swift enough to eliminate all but the strongest. Otters, eagles, and bears stalk the salmon in shallow riffles. Once on the spawning grounds, the fish battle each other females against females for places to nest, males against males for available females. The female builds her nest, called a redd, by agitating the bottom gravel with her fins and tail, and bending ... ...almon belong to the Department of Commerces National Marine Fisheries Service. The U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service and other federal and evidence agencies also have recovery responsibilities. The largest of the Pacific salmon, chinook (Oncorhynchus tshawytscha) average most 24 pounds when they return to their natal river to spawn, most after 2 or 3 years at sea. The chinook is the least abundant of the Pacific salmon. Coho salmon (Oncorhynchus kisutch), fourth in Pacific fishery abundance, is the number one playing period fish. It spends only one winter at sea, returning the next fall to spawn. It averages somewhat 10 pounds when full grown. Sockeye salmon (Oncorhynchus nerka) make up about 25 percent of the West Coast catch, and chum salmon (Oncorhynchus keta) make up about 13 percent. Both follow similar migration paths in the Pacific and reach a common weight of about 12 pounds before returning to their natal river to spawn. Pink salmon (Oncorhynchus gorbuscha), the smallest of the Pacific salmon, average only about 3 to 5 pounds. However, they make up more than half the total West Coast commercial catch. Pink salmon seldom travel more than 150 miles from the mouth of their natal river.

Urban Legend of Photos of Hikers on the Appalachian Trail :: Urban Legends

Lost Among the Leaves Secret Photos of Hikers on the Appalachian TrailThis story, which I ask named Lost in the Leaves, is a very detailed and place particularised version of the unexplained photographs legends. While unexplained photograph legends often involve humorous pictures taken as a practical joke, there is also a darker streak of these legends. These are legends where mysterious photographs reveal just how near a person was to death through photographs developed after the fact. The fear in these is of what could have happened. In this version however, the photographs serve to warn the endangered as well. This urban legend thus allows other interpretations for why the photographs were taken, and shown to the endangered party. I collected this urban legend from a Freshman here at the University. It was told to him as a scary story when he was hiking along the Appalachian trail, about five days ago.Have you ever been on the Appalachian Trail?OK.The man who proposed it had a utopian vision of a long, tenuous string of outposts stretching from Maine to Georgia, such that adventuresome young men and women, possibly disenfranchised by society and the economy, could trek from one end of the country to the other sharing each night with as well disposed adventurers.Each outpost was to consist of dozens of beds, a kitchen, a chess set sitting on the porch.The idea was every traveler should sense of smell at liberty to pursue the trail at whatever speed they desired, with the assurance that wherever their feet took them they would find welcome.Reality falls a little slight of this vision -- most of the shelters are actually three-sided cabins with four bunks-- Mouse infested-- But still, finding a structure of plainly human origin in the wilderness is a comforting thing. Sometimes, on the trail, youll come across an artifact of a previous traveler -- say -- a rope swing -- that is obviously constructed with such care that it seems to carry somethin g of the soul of the person who put it there.I remember once coming to the top of a mountain and finding a meadow that was bare grass except for one tree in the middle -- and from that tree hung a rope swing that looked to have been there for decades.The Appalachian Trail convinces those who follow it of the existence of ghosts.Benevolent ghosts.